Professors Minkoff, Chair, and Thomas; Associate Professors Pelliccia, Kinsman, Abrahamsen, Baker, Ambrose, and Kleckner; Assistant Professors Sommer and O'Steen; Ms. Palin

Biology is the study of living systems and how they interact with the nonliving world and with one another. It is a discipline that bridges the physical and social sciences. Students who major in biology become familiar with all levels of biological organization from molecules to ecosystems, and gain practical experience in both laboratory and field studies.

Major Requirements. 1) Chemistry 107A or Chemistry/Environmental Studies 107B; and Chemistry 108A or Chemistry/Environmental Studies 108B; and one of Chemistry 203, 212, 218, Geology 363, or Biology 244. The Chemistry 218 option (with prerequisite of Chemistry 217) is strongly recommended for students interested in attending graduate school, and required for those planning to apply to medical school programs after graduation. Prospective majors are strongly encouraged to complete Chemistry 107A or Chemistry/Environmental Studies 107B and Chemistry 108A or Chemistry/Environmental Studies 108B in the first year.

2) At least ten courses in biology, of which a minimum of eight must be taken from the Bates faculty. Eight of the ten courses must be advanced courses (200-level and above, or the equivalent). Two introductory (100-level) courses may be applied toward the major, as long as at least one has a full laboratory component (Biology 121, 123, 124, 125, 131, 168, or 176).

The ten biology courses must include:

a) The three biology core courses, which must be completed prior to beginning the senior year and may not count toward the major if taken pass/fail: Biology 201 (formerly Biology 101s), Biology 270 (formerly Biology 170), and Biology s42. Completion of the core courses by the end of the sophomore year is strongly recommended. Core courses have prerequisites.

b) Biology 460, Junior–Senior Seminar, which may not count toward the major if taken pass/fail and must be taken during the fall or winter semester of the junior or senior year.

c) Additional electives to complete the ten courses required. The advanced courses may not include Biology 244 if Biology 244 is used to complete requirement (1) above, and may include no more than two research or thesis credits from among the following biology courses: 360, 457, 458, 470 through 478, and s50, and no more than one Short Term unit (s30-level and above) in addition to s42. Short Term internships (s26 and s46) do not count toward the major. At least one elective must be a laboratory course that focuses on form and function of plants or animals. Courses that currently satisfy the form and function requirement include: 121 (Plant Diversity), 124 (Plants and Human Affairs), 176 (Physiology of Locomotion), 211 (Marine Invertebrates), 268 (Entomology), 311 (Comparative Anatomy of the Chordates), 337 (Animal Physiology), 362 (Animal Behavior), 380 (Plant Physiology).

Chemistry 321, Chemistry 322, Psychology 355, or Psychology 363 may be substituted for one advanced course in satisfying the requirements of the major.

Excluding one 100-level biology course, and the three biology core courses (Biology 201, 270, and s42), majors in biological chemistry, environmental studies, and/or neuroscience may apply only one biology course (or substitute course such as Chemistry 321 or 322, or Psychology 355 or 363) used for the biological chemistry requirements, the environmental studies requirements, and/or the neuroscience requirements toward the requirements for a major in biology.

3) Completion of the comprehensive examination requirement. The comprehensive examination requirement must be fulfilled by a satisfactory performance on the departmental comprehensive exam given once during the winter semester of the senior year, or by achieving a score corresponding to the twenty-sixth percentile on the Graduate Record Exam Subject Test in Biology. The GRE option must be fulfilled by the December test date of the senior year; students are encouraged to take the test early.

Planning for the Major. Prospective majors are urged to discuss course selection and scheduling with a member of the department in the first year, particularly if use of Advanced Placement credits, or participation in an off-campus study program, is anticipated. The department strongly encourages students to complete the required core courses before the end of their sophomore year to allow scheduling flexibility later. Completion of the core courses prior to the beginning of the senior year is required. The department also strongly advises that electives be chosen in close consultation with faculty to ensure breadth of knowledge within biology (from molecules and cells to organisms and ecosystems). Students may apply to include in the major a biology internship at the Jackson Laboratory in Bar Harbor, Maine, or Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center in New York.

Pass/Fail Grading Option. Pass/fail grading may be elected for courses applied towards the major except for four required courses: Biology 201, 270, 460, and s42.

General Education. A set in biology consists of any two courses in biology, provided that at least one has a full laboratory component. Courses with full laboratory components currently include Biology 121, 123, 124, 125, 131, 168, 176, 201, 211, 260, 270, 308, 311, 313, 315, 316, 336, 337, 341, 351, 362, and 380. Any biology course or designated unit may be used to fulfill the third course for the natural-science requirement. Designated units include s24, s27, s32, s33, s37, s42, and s45. The quantitative requirement can be satisfied by completing Biology 155 (or 255), 201 (or 101s), 244, 270 (or 170), or s45. Advanced Placement credit may not be used for general education requirements.

Courses
104. Learning and Teaching Biology. This course offers a way for students to investigate selected topics in biology through the development and implementation of service-learning projects at local schools. Students learn the principles, concepts, and vocabulary of selected topics in biology. Then, through work with library and Internet resources, teachers, and younger students, students design and help teach curricular units and hands-on lab experiences to younger learners. Students are encouraged to learn independently, to think beyond the college classroom, to become involved in the community, and to appreciate the interdisciplinary nature of biology. Enrollment limited to 40. L. Abrahamsen.

106. Animal Development. Development is a process by which a single fertilized egg grows and changes into a complex organism with trillions of cells. How do the cells of an embryo grow and become different within the constraint that the genes are the same in each type of cell? This course focuses on the mechanisms by which genes control development in animals. The course includes discussions of current political and ethical issues in reproductive technology, but focuses on the science underlying these technologies. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 316. Enrollment is limited to 40. J. Pelliccia. New course beginning 2002-2003.

107. Microbes in the Biosphere. Microorganisms are ubiquitous, exhibiting remarkable diversity in habitat and metabolic activity. This course explores the activities and interactions of microbial populations within their biotic and abiotic environments. Discussions and readings focus on current topics including, but not limited to, biogeochemical cycling, bioremediation, the industrial uses of microbes, and the role of microorganisms in health and disease. Enrollment limited to 40. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 125 or 315. K. Palin.

112. Oceanography. An integrated, interdisciplinary overview of the chemistry, physics, geology, and biology of the world's oceans. Topics include chemical and physical properties of sea water, ocean circulation, evolution of ocean basins, coastal geomorphology, the distribution and abundance of organisms in the major marine communities, the status of the world's most important fisheries, and the role of the ocean in the global carbon cycle. Enrollment limited to 40. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 110 or 210. This course is the same as Geology 112. W. Ambrose. Course cross-listed and re-numbered beginning Fall 2002.

115. Discover Neuroscience. Neuroscience as a discipline is relatively new, but the process of scientific investigation into brain and nervous system function has taken place for centuries. In this course students explore the major discoveries and ideas that have contributed to our current understanding of the nervous system. Topics may include, but are not limited to, Galen's philosophy of brain function, the contributions of women to discovery in neuroscience, comparisons of early techniques for visualizing brain tissue with modern noninvasive imaging techniques (such as PET scans), and the future of discovery in neuroscience. Enrollment limited to 40. Not open to students who have received credit for First-Year Seminar 215 or Neuroscience 115. N. Kleckner.

118. Bugs in the System. Insects-numerous, ubiquitous, diverse, and uniquely equipped-strongly influence ecosystem processes and human health, culture, and history. This lecture and laboratory course introduces insects' biology and diversity and explores insects' ecological roles and consequent impacts on human affairs. Selected topics-colonial and post-colonial medical entomology, typhus and war, the historical silk and contemporary cotton industries, discourses of sociobiology and biodiversity, twentieth-century popular culture, and the politics of pesticides-illustrate how insect-human interactions contribute to social history in ways both obvious and obscure. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 168 or 268. S. Kinsman. New course beginning 2001-2002.

120. Toxins. Issues and potential problems related to toxic materials are reported almost daily by the mass media. Major misunderstandings and confusion often raised by the reports usually are due to a lack of basic knowledge about toxicology. This course introduces basic principles of toxicology by discussing topics such as contaminants in food, endocrine disruption in wildlife, and dioxins and PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls). Enrollment limited to 40. R. Sommer.

121. Plant Diversity. A survey of marine and freshwater algae, the fungi, mosses, ferns, fern allies, and seed plants. Lecture and laboratory studies emphasize comparative structures, functions, habitats, and evolutionary relationships. Enrollment limited to 40. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 221. R. Thomas.

124. Plants and Human Affairs. A survey of economically and historically important plants, with emphasis on aspects of agronomy, forestry, plant biochemistry, and ethno-botany. Plant products studied include perfumes, spices, medicinals, fermentation products, oils, rubber, textiles, wood, sugar, cereals, and legumes. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 224. Enrollment limited to 40. R. Thomas.

125. Environmental Microbiology. Microorganisms are ubiquitous and live in a variety of habitats. This course explores the relationships between microorganisms, particularly the bacteria, fungi, and algae, and their biotic and physical environments. Among the topics for discussion are soil microbiology and biogeochemical cycles, bioremediation, and aquatic microbiology. Consideration is given to human health and disease. Laboratory investigations focus on microbial habitats and metabolic diversity. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 215 or 315. Enrollment limited to 40. K. Palin.

127. Emerging Infections Across the Globe. Newly described infections, infections that appear in different geographic regions, infections that move into new host populations: these are the emerging infections. In this course, students study the biology of bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other organisms that cause these infections and the mechanisms by which they produce disease. We explore transmission patterns, treatments, and preventions. Our topics include infections of global concern such as malaria, tapeworms, dengue fever, HIV AIDS, polio, and other childhood diseases, cholera, and tuberculosis. Enrollment limited to 40. Not open to students who have received credit for First-Year Seminar 236. Open to first-year students. K. Palin. New course beginning Winter semester 2002.

131. Human Genetics and Biotechnology. How does DNA function to produce the traits seen in animals? How are these traits passed on from generation to generation? How can the study of human genetic disease give us insight into answering these questions? These questions are the focus of a laboratory and lecture course in genetics that begins with a review of Mendelian inheritance and ends with a discussion of modern molecular research and its enormous impact on humankind. DNA fingerprinting, in vitro manipulation of embryos, and the production of transgenic animals are discussed. Special attention is given to the ecological and ethical impacts of genetic technology. This course presumes that students have a background in genetics from high school biology. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 231. J. Pelliccia.

155. Mathematical Models in Biology. Mathematical models are increasingly important throughout the life sciences. This course provides an introduction to deterministic and statistical models in biology. Examples are chosen from a variety of biological and medical fields such as ecology, molecular evolution, and infectious disease. Computers are used extensively for modeling and for analyzing data. Recommended background: a course in biology. This course is the same as Mathematics 155. Enrollment limited to 30. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 255. B. Shulman.

158. Evolutionary Biology. Evolution is the great unifying theory in biology. It is the context into which all other biological subjects fit. The course examines various aspects of evolution, including the origin of life, the major events in the evolution of life on earth, the nature of the fossil record, the history of evolutionary theories, and creationist objections to these theories. Enrollment limited to 40. E. Minkoff.

164. Introduction to Parasites. This course emphasizes diversity in form and function of major parasite groups, as well as the impacts of parasites on individual hosts, host populations, and ecological communities. Lectures and discussion sessions focus on current research and controversies in parasitology (e.g., parasites and the evolution of sex, parasite-induced behavioral change, the emerging field of "Darwinian" medicine). This course includes a field trip to explore the impacts of parasites on species in intertidal communities. Enrollment limited to 40. Staff.

181. Introduction to Paleontology. Evolutionary principles above the species level are illustrated by studying the evolution of the vertebrates. Enrollment limited to 40. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 281. This course is the same as Geology 181. E. Minkoff. Course cross-listed beginning Fall 2002.

201. Biological Principles. The methods and principles of biology are introduced in the context of an issues-oriented approach that emphasizes coherent understanding of the origin and cellular basis of life, mechanisms of evolution, genetics, and biological diversity. Other selected issues, which may vary from year to year, may include cancer, AIDS, drugs, sociobiology, plant adaptations, and conservation biology. Laboratories involve design and execution of experiments in cooperative laboratory groups and a group project on organismal diversity. Quantitative analysis of data and peer-reviewed scientific writing are emphasized. Students experience the connections among the fields of biology, the interdisciplinary nature of todays biology, and the connections between biological and social issues. Prerequisite(s) or Corequisite(s): any 100-level course in biology, or designated First-Year Seminar (215, 226, 243), or Neuroscience 200, or Advanced Placement credit. Enrollment limited to 21 per section. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 101s. R. Sommer, J. Pelliccia.

211. Marine Invertebrates. A survey of the varieties, morphology, development, evolution, and behavior of invertebrates with an emphasis on marine animals. Laboratory work includes the study, through dissection and experiment, of representative organisms. The course includes field trips to local marine habitats. Prerequisite(s): Biology 101s or 201. Enrollment limited to 14 per section. Staff.

240. Introduction to Epidemiology. Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of disease, injuries, and "health-related occurrences" within populations. This course examines the frequencies and types of illnesses and injuries within various groups and the multiple factors that influence their distribution. Students consider infectious, chronic, emerging, and reemerging diseases of historic and current importance. Models and preventions are discussed. Prerequisite(s): Biology 101s or 201. K. Palin.

244. Biostatistics. A course in the use of both descriptive and inferential statistics in the biological sciences, including such topics as types of data, population structure, probability distributions, common types of statistical inference (t-, F-, and chi-square tests), correlation and regression, analysis of variance, and an introduction to nonparametric statistics. Prerequisite(s): one college biology course. Open to first-year students. Enrollment limited to 50. E. Minkoff.

260. Environmental Toxicology. Environmental toxicology is the study of the impacts of pollutants upon organisms and the structure and function of ecological systems. It draws from a variety of disciplines, including ecology, chemistry, organismal and developmental biology, genetics, epidemiology, and mathematics. This course provides an overview of the field by discussing toxicant introduction, movement, distribution, and fate in the environment; toxicant sites and mechanisms of action in organisms and ecosystems; and toxicant impact upon organisms and ecosystems. Basics of toxicity testing design and analysis are an important part of the laboratory. Prerequisite(s): Chemistry 108A or Chemistry/ Environmental Studies 108B, and Biology 101s or 201. Open to first-year students. Enrollment limited to 24. R. Sommer.

268. Entomology. A study of insects, the largest group of animals. Lectures and laboratories emphasize insect morphology and physiology, evolution and classification, as well as behavior, ecology, and field study. Selected topics may include flight, development and hormones, variations in life cycles and reproductive modes, courtship and parental care, and evolution of mutualisms, defense, and social behavior. Certain laboratories are scheduled as weekend afternoon field trips. In addition, one overnight museum field trip may be scheduled. Prerequisite(s): Biology 101s or 201. Enrollment limited to 14 per section. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 168. S. Kinsman.

270. Ecology. An introduction to ecological and evolutionary patterns, principles, and processes. Topics include life history and adaptation, speciation, population dynamics and interactions, community structure, and ecosystem processes. Laboratories include experimental investigations of several levels of biological organization using cooperative lab groups. Prerequisite(s): Biology 101s or 201. Open to first-year students. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 170. Staff.

285. Primates and Human Origins. A course in primatology and physical anthropology for students of biology, psychology, anthropology, and other fields. Topics include primate evolution, paleoanthropology, primate sociobiology, primate behavior, human diversity, and the physical prerequisites for culture. Conflicting views on phylogeny, race, intelligence, and behavior are also discussed. Prerequisite(s): Biology 101s or 201. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 185. E. Minkoff.

308. Neurobiology. The course is an introduction to the molecular and cellular principles of neurobiology, and the organization of neurons into networks. Also included are the topics of developmental and synaptic plasticity, and the role invertebrate systems have played in our understanding of these processes. Laboratories include electrical recordings of nerve cells, computer simulation and modeling, and the use of molecular techniques in neurobiology. Recommended background: Neuroscience 200. Prerequisite(s): Biology s42. This course is the same as Neuroscience 308. Enrollment limited to 24. N. Kleckner.

311. Comparative Anatomy of the Chordates. An introduction to the comparative anatomy of the vertebrates and their kin, with laboratory study of both sharks and mammals. Prerequisite(s): Biology 101s or 201. Enrollment limited to 18. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 251. E. Minkoff.

313. Marine Ecology. An examination of the complex ecological interactions that structure marine systems. Habitats studied include intertidal, estuary, coral reef, deep sea, salt marsh, and pelagic. Laboratories include work in local marine communities and require occasional weekend trips. Prerequisite(s): Biology 170 or 270. Enrollment limited to 12 per laboratory section. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 213. W. Ambrose.

314. Virology. A lecture and seminar examination of the molecular biology of viruses, including viroids and bacteriophages. Topics include viral infection and replication cycles, morphology, oncogenesis, and virus-host interactions. Viruses of epidemiologic and biotechnologic importance are emphasized. Prerequisite(s): Biology s42. Enrollment limited to 30. L. Abrahamsen.

315. Bacteriology. A survey of the structure and physiology of bacteria, emphasizing adaptations of these organisms to specific environmental niches. Particular attention is given to organisms of medical, ecological, or industrial interest. Prerequisite(s): Biology s42. Enrollment limited to 25. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 215. L. Abrahamsen.

316. Molecular Aspects of Development. An investigation of developmental processes in complex plants and animals. The course focuses on embryonic development and includes the roles of genetic and environmental determinants. There is an emphasis on cell communication processes mediating such processes as cell fate specification, differentiation, pattern formation, and sex determination. The similarities and differences among these processes in different organisms are highlighted. Prerequisite(s): Biology s42. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 216. J. Pelliccia.

320. Pharmacology. Pharmacology is the study of the actions and effects of drugs within a living system. It deals with all drugs, legal and illegal, prescription and over-the-counter, used to prevent disease or treat illness. This course presents mechanisms of action, therapeutic uses, and toxicity of important drugs, including drugs that affect the peripheral nervous system, central nervous system, cardiovascular system, gastrointestinal tract, endocrine system, and reproductive system, as well as agents used to treat cancer. Prerequisite(s): Biology s42. Recommended background: Biology 176 or 337. R. Sommer.

323. Plant and Forest Ecology. Study of terrestial plants' population dynamics, community patterns, and adaptations to physical and biological environments, with an emphasis on the "North Woods." Field trip learning is central. Topics in alpine and subalpine vegetation of Mt. Washington, adaptations to selected wetland conditions, plant-animal interactions, reproduction and demography, forest disturbanc dynamics, and plant communities of the historically forested landscapes of Northern New England. Some Saturday field trip laboratories. Prerequisite(s): one of the following: First-Year Seminar 226, Biology 124, 201, Environmental Studies 203, 302. Enrollment is limited to 12. S. Kinsman. Course reinstated beginning Fall 2002.

331. Molecular Biology. An introduction to the molecular biology of genes and chromosomes. The course emphasizes current research about gene structure and function, experimental techniques, and eukaryotic genetics. Prerequisite(s): Biology s42. J. Pelliccia.

337. Animal Physiology. The major physiological processes of animals, including digestion, circulation, respiration, excretion, locomotion, and both neural and hormonal regulation. Examples are drawn from several species and include a consideration of the cellular basis of organ-system function. Prerequisite(s): Biology s42. Recommended background: Biology 176 or 276. Enrollment limited to 12 per section. Staff.

338. Drug Actions on the Nervous System. This course focuses on the biochemistry and physiology of neural tissues. An emphasis is placed on neurotransmitter systems, and on drugs thought to act on these systems. The relationships between the actions of drugs at molecular, cellular, and behavioral levels are also discussed. Students review current literature related to topics of special interest. Prerequisite(s): Biology s42. Recommended background: Neuroscience 200, Biology/Neuroscience 308, or Psychology 363. N. Kleckner.

341. Electron Microscopy. An introduction to the principles of electron optics, with emphasis on biological applications. Topics covered in lecture or laboratory include preparation of specimens for transmission and scanning electron microscopy; use of the scanning electron microscope; use of associated photographic, X-ray dispersive, cytochemical, immunological, and autoradiographic techniques; and interpretation of data. Special interest topics are chosen by students for independent research projects. Prerequisite(s): Biology s42. Enrollment limited to 6. R. Thomas.

351. Immunology. The immune system is studied as an example of the body's chemical communication networks and as one mechanism for memory. Topics include production of an immune response, immune surveillance in the maintenance of health, the effects of psychological and environmental factors on the immune system and on health, and the effects of immune dysfunctions (autoimmune diseases and immune deficiencies including AIDS). The course emphasizes the human immune system but briefly covers comparative immunology. The course includes a laboratory. Prerequisite(s): Biology s42. P. Baker.

352. Membrane and Receptor Biology. A detailed examination of the structure and function of biological membranes drawing on examples of the six kingdoms. Topics include the biophysical properties of cell and organelle membranes, and their biological functions, including signalling, adhesion, trafficking and transport. Prerequisite(s): Biology s42 or Chemistry 321. P. Baker.

360. Independent Study. Students, in consultation with a faculty advisor, individually design and plan a course of study or research not offered in the curriculum. Course work includes a reflective component, evaluation, and completion of an agreed-upon product. Sponsorship by a faculty member in the program/department, a course prospectus, and permission of the chair is required. Students may register for no more than one independent study per semester. Staff.

362. Animal Behavior. In this course students investigate a wide range of theories and experiments on why animals behave as they do, while developing the confidence and skills needed to create original research. The course examines how genetics, development, physiology, ecology, and evolution all shape behaviors, ranging from foraging and escape strategies to reproductive and social interactions. The course emphasizes the process of science by evaluating methods, examining old and new research, and developing and testing students' own ideas. Prerequisite(s): Biology 201 and 270. Enrollment limited to 24. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 162. S. O'Steen.

365. Special Topics. Offered at irregular intervals by a faculty member in an area of contemporary interest.

365D. Seminar in Invertebrate Evolution. An investigation of current theories about the origins of multicellular life and deep metazonan phylogeny. The course provides an introduction to the processes and perils of phylogeny reconstruction, utilizing current literature with an emphasis on comparisons of molecular, morphological, and developmental evidence. Prerequisite(s): Biology 201 and 211. Written permission of the instructor is required. Staff.

368. Seminar on the Evolution of Sex. For over 150 years, scientists have asked why the vast majority of living organisms reproduce sexually, when asexual reproduction (reproducing without mating) offers a much more efficient means of producing offspring. There is still little agreement among scientists as to why sex persists and why most organisms do it. In this course, students examine the many hypotheses put forward to explain sex. They study the enormous variety of reproductive modes exhibited by living creatures and investigate their ecological, evolutionary, and genetic consequences. Prerequisite(s) or Corequisite(s): Biology 270. Recommended background: some background in evolution and/or genetics. Enrollment limited to 15. Written permission of the instructor is required. Staff.

380. Plant Physiology. A study of organismal and cellular functions important in the life of green plants. Topics include mineral nutrition, water relations, metabolism, and regulatory processes. Prerequisite(s): Biology s42. R. Thomas.

457, 458. Senior Thesis. Permission of the department and the thesis advisor are required. Students register for Biology 457 in the fall semester and for Biology 458 in the winter semester. Majors writing an honors thesis register for both Biology 457 and 458. Written permission of the department chair is required. Staff.

460. Junior–Senior Seminar. Reading original biological literature is an essential skill for biology majors. Focusing on the topics addressed. by invited speakers for the semesters biology seminar program, students review articles, write analyses, and contribute oral presentations in a small group format. Students attend afternoon and/or evening seminars and discuss the content, context, and presentation of original investigations. This course is required of all biology majors beginning with the class of 2004 and may replace the extracurricular seminar requirement for all other majors. Prerequisite(s): Biology 201, 270, and s42. One of these courses may be taken concurrently, only by permission of the instructor. Enrollment limited to 40. Staff.

470. Seminar and Research in Experimental Ecology. Laboratory, field, or library study of a current research topic in experimental ecology. A topic is selected with reference to the research interests of the instructor. Prerequisite(s): Biology 170 or 270. Enrollment limited to 6. Written permission of the instructor is required. Staff.

471. Seminar and Research in Experimental Botany. Laboratory, field, or library study of a current research topic in experimental botany. A topic is selected with reference to the research interests of the instructor. Enrollment limited to 6. Written permission of the instructor is required. R. Thomas.

472. Seminar and Research in Evolution and Physiology. Laboratory or library study of a current research topic in animal physiology. Students may select a topic with reference to the research interests of the instructor. Recommended background: Biology 176, 276, or 337. Enrollment limited to 6. Written permission of the instructor is required. Staff.

473. Seminar and Research in Cell Biology. Laboratory and library study of a current research topic in the experimental study of biology at the cellular level. A topic is selected with reference to the research interests of the instructor. Recommended background: Biology s42. Enrollment limited to 6. Written permission of the instructor is required. Staff.

474. Seminar and Research in Marine Biology. Laboratory, field, and library study of advanced topics in marine biology. Topics are selected in relation to research interests of the instructor and students. Prerequisite(s): Biology 244 and 270. Recommended background: Biology 211. Enrollment limited to 6. Written permission of the instructor is required. W. Ambrose.

475. Seminar and Research in Environmental Toxicology. Laboratory and library study of a current research topic in environmental toxicology. Topics are selected in relation to research interests of the instructor and students. Recommended background: Biology s42. Enrollment limited to 6. Written permission of the instructor is required. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology s41. R. Sommer.

476. Seminar and Research in Neurobiology. Laboratory or library study of a current research topic in molecular or cellular neurobiology. A topic is selected in reference to the research interests of the instructor. Prerequisite(s): one of the following: Biology/Neuroscience 308, Biology 278, 337, 338, or Psychology/Neuroscience 363. Enrollment limited to 6. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology s44. N. Kleckner.

478. Seminar and Research in the Molecular Biology of Model Organisms. The fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, and the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, have served as useful model organisms for cellular and molecular research. The genome sequencing projects for these organisms have given us an unprecedented insight into what it takes to code for the myriad functions that make a multicellular animal. A diversity of molecular genetic techniques makes the production and analysis of transgenic animals routine, and basic developmental and neurobiological processes first described in these model organisms have served as a starting point for understanding the function of homologous processes in more complex animals. Students perform laboratory, literature, and genome database research on current problems in the biology of these model organisms. Prerequisite(s): Biology s42. Recommended background: at least one elective course in genetics, biochemistry, or cellular or molecular biology. Enrollment limited to 6. Written permission of the instructor is required. J. Pelliccia.

Short Term Units
s23. Understanding Cancer. As a cause of mortality in the Western world, cancer is second only to cardiovascular disease. What causes cancer? How is cancer diagnosed and classified? How do flaws in fundamental biological processes drive cancerous growth? What are current therapeutic options and potential new treatments in the fight against cancer? These questions and more are explored in the classroom and the laboratory. Enrollment limited to 30. R. Sommer.

s24. Experimental Biology. This unit introduces students to how scientific knowledge is produced. In the unique setting of the Mt. Desert Island Biological Laboratory, an internationally-known biological research facility, students design and carry out lab and field research projects. Students learn the fundamentals of data collection, interpretation, and presentation. Through discussions and attendance at formal scientific seminars, students also consider the nature and social value of the scientific process. Enrollment limited to 16. Written permission of the instructor is required. P. Baker, L. Abrahamsen.

s26. Work-Study Internship in the Natural Sciences. Participation by qualified students in the work of some local or distant institution or agency concerned with the application of scientific knowledge. Such institutions may include hospitals, aquacultural farms, and medical or veterinary offices, among others. Internships are undertaken by specific arrangement and with departmental approval only. Each intern is supervised by a staff member. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology s36. Written permission of the instructor is required. Staff.

s29. Nature Photography. A study of photographic techniques used by biologists in the field and laboratory, with emphasis on close-up photography of plants and animals. Additional areas covered include landscape and aerial photography, photomicrography, and preparation of photographs for lectures or publication. Required: access to a 35mm single lens reflex camera. Recommended background: one course in biology at the 100 level. There is a materials fee of $120.00 per student. Enrollment limited to 15. Written permission of the instructor is required. R. Thomas.

s30. Experimental Biomechanics and Physiology. How do animals move? Do anatomy and physiology limit how bugs grab their food, or how fish dance to attract mates? Does environmental variation (normal variation, or global warming, pollution, or extinction of predators) influence animal locomotion? This unit explores contemporary questions in biomechanics and physiology through student-designed laboratory and field research. Students concentrate on local resources, for example, using high-speed video to examine the never-before-seen "rowing" stroke of salt marsh backswimmers, or using oxygen sensors to measure the energetic cost of anti-predator behavior. Topics vary according to student interests. Recommended background: Biology 201 and 270. Enrollment is limited to 8. Written permission of the instructor is required. S. O'Steen. New unit beginning Short Term 2002.

s31. Evolutionary Ecology Field Study. This field unit focuses on the ecology of freshwater invertebrates from an evolutionary perspective. Topics of study include: biotic and abiotic aspects of freshwater habitats, species interactions, life history evolution, behaviors and their evolutionary consequences, adaptation, reproductive modes, dispersal, and genetic diversity in populations. Students use a combination of field studies and simple molecular genetic techniques to address these topics. They participate in a class project and also carry out individual research projects. Prerequisite(s): Biology 270. Enrollment limited to 12. Staff.

s32. Experimental Marine Ecology. A survey of marine animals and plants, and their relationships with each other and with their environment. Students learn to identify marine flora and fauna and carry out individual research projects. Recommended background: Biology 270 or 211. Enrollment limited to 8. Written permission of the instructor is required. Staff. Enrollment limit changed effective Short Term 2002.

s37. Forest History. An investigation of the patterns and history of New Englands forests, with an emphasis on field study and research. Students review the influences of geological events, climate, unusual soil and water conditions, natural disturbance, and human activities on forest type, occurrence, and history. Visits to a variety of forests, both old-growth and young, emphasize the importance of field learning. Central to the unit is a research project to describe a forests structure, composition, and history. Primary literature is emphasized. Prerequisite(s): Biology 270 or Environmental Studies 302. Enrollment limited to 10. Not open to students who have received credit for First-Year Seminar 226. S. Kinsman.

s38. Geologic and Biologic Field Studies in the Canadian Arctic. This unit examines the biology and Quaternary geology of the eastern Canadian Arctic. Research focuses on glaciology, snow hydrology, and sedimentation in fjords and lakes, and the adaptations required of terrestrial and aquatic plants and animals to survive in the Arctic. Students prepare geologic and vegetation maps, examine animal distributions, study modern fjord and lacustrine environments, and collect and analyze water and sediment samples from lake and marine environments. Emphasis is placed on the relations between biological and geological patterns. Prerequisite(s): one of the following: Biology 201 or any introductory geology course. Recommended background: field experience in biology or geology. This unit is the same as Geology s38. Open to first-year students. Enrollment limited to 12. Written permission of the instructor is required. M. Retelle, W. Ambrose.

s39. Studying Evolution in the Wild: Trinidad Rainforest Fauna. Rapid changes in environment are ubiquitous in the modern world. We most often consider immediate impacts, such as damage to ecological relationships, physiology, and reproduction. Yet these types of damage can lead to rapid evolution of affected species, and the speed and practical implications of evolutionary change are little understood. In this unit, students examine the evolution of vertebrates in the wild, by designing and conducting independent research projects using a rare model system for such studies: the mountain rainforest fauna of Trinidad. The unit begins at Bates with a week of discussion of project ideas and the natural history and culture of Trinidad. Students then spend three weeks at a field station in Trinidad conducting projects. On return to Bates they write up their findings and present them at an open symposium. Prerequisite(s): Biology 201 and 270. Enrollment limited to 6. S. O'Steen.

s42. Cellular and Molecular Biology. A view of life at the cellular and molecular levels. Topics include cellular energetics, membrane phenomena, and molecular biology. Laboratory techniques include enzymology, cell fractionation, microbial genetics, and electrophoresis. Prerequisite(s): Biology 201, and Chemistry 108A or Chemistry/ Environmental Studies 108B. Open to first-year students. Staff.

s44. Experimental Neuro/Physiology. A study of contemporary research techniques in the fields of neurobiology, physiology, and pharmacology. Topics may include the pharmacology of recombinant neurotransmitter receptors or the physiology and pharmacology of invertebrate neurons. This unit requires extensive laboratory work in independent projects. Prerequisite(s): one of the following: Biology/Neuroscience 308, Biology 278, 337, 338, or Psychology/Neuroscience 363. Enrollment limited to 12. Not open to students who have received credit for Biology 476. N. Kleckner.

s45. Computer Applications in Biology and Medicine. Through individual projects, students are introduced to some of the techniques of computer programming, as well as some of the biological problems that lend themselves to investigation with the aid of computers. No previous experience in computer programming is assumed. Prerequisite(s): Biology 158 or 270. Enrollment limited to 15. E. Minkoff.

s46. Internship in the Natural Sciences. Off-campus participation by qualified students as team members in an experimental research program. Internships are undertaken by specific arrangement and with departmental approval only. Enrollment limited to 15. Written permission of the instructor is required. Staff.

s50. Independent Study. Students, in consultation with a faculty advisor, individually design and plan a course of study or research not offered in the curriculum. Course work includes a reflective component, evaluation, and completion of an agreed-upon product. Sponsorship by a faculty member in the program/department, a course prospectus, and permission of the chair is required. Students may register for no more than one independent study during a Short Term. Staff.

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